for the entire earth. National and international thematic atlases also contribute to the
growth in variety of map series.
In the midst of these fast developments, cartographers feel the need to reflect upon
the question of what a map in essence is. The great number of papers with the theme
'Cartography as a means of expression and communication' presented at the Fifth
International Conference on Cartography at Stresa, Italy in 1970 demonstrates this
need. The central question was: 'What is a map and what role does it play in the
transfer of knowledge? This question was answered by many of the introductory
Speakers using a variety of examples. It demonstrated the degree of importance which
was attached to the map as a medium of communication within the various branches
of cartography, such as the thematic and topographic Cartography as well as the
'research' cartography and 'schooT cartography. In an introductory invited paper,
Koeman1 summarized the cartographic communication problem pointedly with the
counter-question: "//ow do I say what to whom'l
In our discussion here, the 'how' is excluded. I.e. the problem of the cartographic
means of expression, discussed so well by Jacques Bertin in his recent book Semiologie
Graphique. As far as the 'whom' is concerned, this can be answered (for the type of
map which we will be discussing here) with a short, 'the public at large': The group of
map users of which we do not know the size nor the composition. Quite contrary to
the user group of, for instance the detailed geological map, or the school atlas, the
group of topographic map users exhibits a great variety in composition. These user
groups can vary between the military and the scouting group, between the scientific
researcher and the tourist group, between the teacher and the Student group. These
and many others are users of the topographic maps. It is therefore understandable that
in the midst of the growing diversity of map products these specific types of maps,
satisfying such a broad ränge of interests, form the cartographic ancestral line in the
cartographic family tree, from the origins of map making down to our present time.
The multiple use aspect has made the topographic map especially valuable to those
whose primary need was to find his bearing on the earth's surface: to get a general
'overview' or a general survey of the nature and the position of the terrain elements
and terrain characteristics.
The need to obtain an overall view, generally speaking precedes the need for insight
in the continuity and the origin of the terrain elements.
The primary need for the overall-view-entity is strikingly demonstrated by the
contents of the maps of voyages of discovery, by the international map of the world
1 1 000 000 and 1 2 500 000 and,most recently, by the contents of the topographic
Fig. 2. 'T in O' map.
K.N.A.G. Geograßsch Tijdschrifl VI (1972) Nr. 3 267
